Assessing strategies to combat neighbourhood disputes (Anti-social behaviour)

Assessing strategies to combat neighbourhood disputes (Anti-social behaviour) in deprived council estate areas: A case study on the Isle of Dogs, in the London Borough of Tower Hamlets. Project Issue: The Crime and Disorder Act, 1998, defines anti-social behaviour as behaving: â€Å"In a manner that caused or was likely to cause harassment, alarm or distress to one or more persons not of the same household as (the defendant).† (Home Office (a) 2003) As this definition covers a wide range of crimes from prostitution, to having excessively high hedges1, I have decided to specifically focus on neighbour disputes such as noise pollution, violent occurrences, and inconsiderate rubbish dumping and similar neighbour to neighbour disputes. The central issue of the dissertation will be firstly, the evaluation of how well four researched strategies used to combat anti-social behaviour, all used in four case studies, actually combat and prevent anti-social neighbour disputes. Secondly, how well those strategies would be placed to deal with neighbour disputes in the Isle of Dogs. Each strategy that has been researched has a relevant case study that illustrates precisely how that strategy works when deployed in practice. Each strategy will be assessed in light of the relevant case study. Case studies have been used concerning anti-social neighbour disputes from the Isle of Dogs (East London), Blackburn, Manchester, and Scotland. The questions that this dissertation will be seeking to find out are: * What are the most prominent and researched strategies that have been analysed, evaluated, and used by academics and practitioners? * How useful are each of these strategies, and what are their strength's and what are their weaknesses? * To what extent, can each of these strategies be successfully applied to neighbour disputes within the Isle of Dogs, with its own unique situation e.g. diverse ethnic population, and extreme poverty on the doorstep to a wealthy area (Canary Wharf)? * How high is the level of anti social behaviour within the borough, relative to other London boroughs? * What is so different or peculiar about the Isle of Dogs? I will locate this central issue within the wider context of the causes of anti-social behaviour, and take into consideration the various dimensions of neighbour disputes. For example I will also consider the age and racial dimensions (Lucey & Reay 1999), and the gender dimensions (Nixon & Hunter, 1999), of anti social behaviour and in particular, neighbour disputes. METHOD Summary of the academic research required: The aim of this project is to research, analyse, and evaluate the various arguments and strategies concerning the best method to combat anti-social behaviour with regards to neighbour disputes. There are three main strategies or approaches to combat (anti-social) neighbour disputes that my research has discovered: 1. Improving exclusion from certain areas (as advocated by the government). This would include laws making it easier for social landlords to exclude or kick out tenants from social housing at little notice. It could also include restriction orders whereby the accused is not allowed to come within a certain distance of the property or use certain language in the presence, or audio range, of their neighbours as shown in one of the case studies I have researched (Home Office, 2003)2. It could also come in the form of issuing curfew orders3. 2. The second possible response is the ‘Dundee Families project model (Hunter, 2003). This is similar to the 1970's method of rehabilitation through intensive social work and constant nurturing of offenders, as well as the nurturing of community stakeholders. 3. The third approach is one of the Webster-Stratton programme as advocated by a senior lecturer at the Institute of Psychiatry Stephen Scott4. This is a parent teaching programme, similar to the rehabilitation method above, but involves working strictly with young children (below 10 years of age) and is based in a secure environment talking kids through a video presentation, and group discussions on how they should diffuse problematic situations when encountered upon. 4. The fourth possible approach is the one advocated by the Office of the Deputy Prime Minister: The new deal for Communities (NDC) approach whereby large sums of money, à ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½800 million, is given to various neighbourhoods throughout the country for the regeneration of their local community. This could involve building a new park, refurbishing the local community hall, or creating a voluntary organisation aimed at cleaning up graffiti. Through my preliminary research in the form my annotated bibliography, I have discovered that there are widely contrasting views as to the causes of anti-social behaviour, and what strategies work in combating neighbour disputes and those that are a lot more contentious. Each of these strategies will be examined in my dissertation and I plan to analyse and evaluate the strengths and weaknesses of each of these strategies. For each strategy that I have researched I have also researched a corresponding case study that illustrates precisely how that strategy works in practice. With this in mind, I plan to test each strategy by examining the relevant case study against benchmark factors such as: * How well would this strategy work in the Isle of Dogs? * Who are the main beneficiaries, and who are the main losers? * Is it practical? (e.g. cost effective and workable in today's political climate) * Does it pay attention to gender ethnic, or cultural, differences? * Does it build relations within the community as opposed to exclude sections of the community? Anti-social behaviour is commonly thought to occur in regions and areas where there is a high density of council houses, high levels of unemployment, and low levels of education opportunities (Home Office (b), 2003). However this assumption can be challenged, and the main aim of my research is to do precisely that, provide a balanced yet provoking argument providing both sides of the argument to this debate. It could be argued that only by spending money in the regeneration (e.g. building new community facilities, installing double glazing windows, giving grants for local businesses etc) will people take pride in their communities and their housing and stop the anti-social behaviour (Home Office (d), 2003). However it could be argued that only by including those that commit anti-social behaviour crimes into society, would there be a decrease in the amount of neighbour disputes [as opposed to excluding them from housing, facilities, benefits etc] (Scott, 2001) & (Hunter, 2003). Alternatively it could be argued that only by some form exclusion can there be a settlement to anti-social neighbour disputes (Home Office (a), 2001. Data collection: I plan to research and investigate: (a) Various academics think tanks, and the government's views on how to combat anti-social behaviour. (b) How these strategies are deployed on the ground by evaluating the case studies that I have selected. (c) Research previous government funded anti-social behaviour projects and organisations, and evaluate these claims against the previously mentioned benchmarks such as: * Practicalities such as cost, manpower, etc * How the people within the community viewed the project * Does it pay attention to gender ethnic, or cultural, differences? * Does it build relations within the community as opposed to exclude sections of the community? My data collection process will rely heavily upon case studies that I have obtained from various academic journals and government reports. Case studies will be taken from the Isle of Dogs in Tower Hamlets (Nixon & Hunter, 1999), from Scotland (Scott and Parkey, 1998), from nation-wide studies (Nixon & Hunter. 2001), and the British Medical Journal (Scott, 2001), amongst others. I have refined my research sources to be more dependent on case studies and journal articles as opposed to other forms of data collection. This is because this specific dissertation is looking for detailed analyses of projects that have combated anti-social behaviour disputes, as opposed to general information, or the views of certain people. I have also devised a questionnaire that I will put forward to a representative sample of 50 Isle of Dogs residents. The questionnaire will not form a significant part of my research, as I will be relying heavily on the case studies. However the results of the questionnaires will be used to back up, or refute, the arguments that I will be presenting in my dissertation. The questions that I will put forward to interviewees are as follows: Questionnaire. What type of incidents would you describe as anti-social neighbour disputes? How big an issue would you rate anti-social neighbour disputes within the Isle of Dogs on a scale of 1 – 10? (1 being not significant and 10 being an extremely big issue) Do you feel that the Isle of Dogs has an above national average level of anti-social neighbour disputes? What do you think is the best method to prevent neighbour disputes concerning adults? * Punish the parents after several warnings * Punish the parents immediately * Give the children extensive social worker attention * Put the child and parent through a psychologically designed training programme on how to behave. * Or other, or a combination of these. If so please explain†¦ Have you been involved in an anti-social neighbour dispute within the last five years? If yes, then ask? (b) Where you an offender or a ‘recipient' of the dispute? I will be asking these questions to the interviewee on a one to one basis and will arrange these interviews by visiting the local Bengali cultural community centre, the local high street, the local cafà ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½, and visiting the local benefits agency (dole office). In addition to these sources I will also collect data from reliable websites such as: Regeneration and anti-social behaviour organisations * http://www.crimereduction.gov.uk * http://www.socialexclusionunit.gov.uk * http://www.odpm.gov.uk * http://www.london.gov.uk * http://www.lda.gov.uk * http://www.go-london.gov.uk (Government Office for London) * http://www.englishpartnerships.co.uk * http://www.bura.org.uk (British Urban Regeneration Association) * http://www.cabe.org.uk (Commission for Architecture and Built Environment) * http://www.civictrust.org.uk * http://www.coalfields-regen.org.uk (The Coalfields Regeneration Trust) * http://www.towerhamlets.gov.uk * http://www.cprregeneration.co.uk * http://www.dta.org.uk/index2.html (Development Trusts Association) * http://www.europa.eu.int * http://www.idea.gov.uk (Improvement and Development Agency) * http://www.renewal.net * http://www.urcs-online.co.uk (Urban Regeneration Companies (URC's)) * http://bmj.bmjjournals.com/cgi/content/full/323/7306/194?maxtoshow=&HITS=10&hits=10&RESULTFORMAT=1&author1=Stephen+Scott&andorexacttitle=and&andorexacttitleabs=and&andorexactfulltext=and&searchid=1071092635458_16583&stored_search=&FIRSTINDEX=0&sortspec=relevance&resourcetype=1,2,3,4,10

Proposal for Inventory System Essay

In today’s global world, access to basic and quality healthcare is crucial and imperative in order to have a good and healthy life. In view of this, access to quality and affordable drugs is a basic raw material in enhancing good and quality healthcare. It is therefore necessary and important to ensure that patients can easily get access to quality, un-expired and affordable drugs for the treatment of their diseases and sicknesses. Most importantly the efficiency with which these services are carried out can go a long way to save lives and improve upon the health status of individuals. Medisol Pharmaceutical Company Limited is a private retail pharmaceutical company established in Ghana and their main focus is to regularly sell pharmaceuticals, skin care products, baby care products and cosmetics to its customers. The company makes continuous efforts to maximize client’s satisfaction by providing good customer service and also segmenting their market so as to enable customers have easy access to their sales outlets. The company has its head office at Kanda and two other branches at west legon and kasowa respectively with their main target groups being the general public. Medisol Pharmaceutical Company ltd. has two major departments namely the Finance/Administrative Department and the Retail Department which are directly under the supervision of the CEO. The company has numerical staff strength of five (5) comprising of a CEO, a superintendent pharmacist, pharmacist, an accountant and a medicine counter assistant. Below is an organogram of Medisol Pharmaceutical company ltd. The Finance/Administrative department which is headed by the accountant handles mainly the financial and administrative tasks of the company. The company’s Retail Department serves as a liaison between Medisol and its customers and is headed by the Medicine Counter Assistant. The main responsibilities of this department are to manage the retail stock, sell items to customers and submit weekly reports to the CEO. Medisol’s operations are solely manual; as our team got to the company we were privileged to speak to the head of the retail department who explained thoroughly to us how the manual process takes place. The process starts with stock purchase where the medicine counter assistant makes a list of all needed items to be bought. This list is sent to their wholesalers for delivery of the items. Upon delivery, the items are crossed checked with the order list made and a sales invoice is then given to Medisol which is then filed in a purchasing file. Items to be sold are arranged on shelves with price tags on each item. Details of items sold are recorded in a sales book. Retail stocks are taken three times in a month and the process used is as follows; -Drugs on the shelves are counted and the quantity is crossed checked with the sales invoice kept in the purchase file(which shows quantity of items bought ), this is done to know the quantity of items sold -The quantity of sold items is then crossed checked from the sales books to further check if the items were really sold, expired or stolen. This process helps them to know how much items have been sold, how much stock is left and also determine whether to make an order or not. Medisol also has a special way of identifying expired drugs so that they won’t be sold to customers, with this the medicine counter assistant prepares a manual list of drugs whose expiry date falls within a particular year hence every six months this list is checked for drugs which have their expiry dates closer or already expired. Those almost about to expire are sold faster while those already expired are cleared from the shelves and discarded. In today’s world it is impossible to compete in the job market without a working knowledge of IT. It is therefore imperative that Medisol Pharmaceutical Company Limited implement and invest into good inventory control management system that have the ability to track, report and replenish stock. This will then improve accuracy and enhance safety and efficiency thereby helping the resale department decrease stock errors. This solution is intended to help the department to manage all transactions of received stocks, price, quantity and invoice. Security of this system will be enhanced, making it impossible for items to be misplaced or stolen. The benefits of the computerized inventory control system to Medisol Pharmaceutical Company ltd. is to make inventory decisions that minimize the total cost of inventory, which is distinctly different from minimizing inventory. It is often more expensive to run out of an item (and thus be forced to obtain it through more expensive channels) than simply to keep more units in stock. Several models have been proposed in the literature for minimizing the total cost of inventory through the use of an economic order quantity, which attempts to balance the carrying costs of inventory with the cost of running out of an item. Most pharmacy inventory decisions involve replenishment–how much to order, when to decide to order, and when to place the order.

Board Exams Preparation Tips

At this point, it is very important to analyze the real cause of this ill feeling and root it out before you sit for your board examinations. Let us analyse the situation and see how you can overcome it. The three possible reasons are: ~ When your peers discuss a question with you and their answer is not quite convincing to you. ~ When you try to solve some problem and suddenly realize that you are not able to do it. ~ When your teacher initiates a discussion on a topic which you know very well and you suddenly discover that there is much more to it than what you know. So whats the REAL problem? In all these situations, the real problem is that although you have assimilated the knowledge, you dont know how to use that knowledge to your advantage. This could, most probably, be due to lack of in-depth understanding of the concept. The problem arises when you read through the concepts to gain maximum knowledge about the concept and the knowledge you could actually gain is just superficial. To reinforce knowledge and to understand it correctly and completely, you need to practice by solving the right kind of questions. The Solution: Choosing the RIGHT Questions Now that we know the underlying problem and its solution, the next job is to ensure that the questions identified by you are the right ones. In fact, there are three sources from where you can get the right kind of questions. (a) The NCERT textbook The NCERT textbook contains certain understanding-based questions after every concept dealt with in the book. Basically, the book has been structured in a way that ensures step-by-step learning and assessment of the sub-topics rather than focusing on overall understanding of the topic. Try to solve these questions on your own and get your answers checked by an expert. Identify the questions that you have got wrong and revise the relevant concept before you attempt them again. (b) Question bank A question bank indexed topic-wise or concept-wise can help serve your purpose. Go to a good bookshop and browse through the question banks available. Choose a book that presents the questions concept-wise. Consider the listed question as a mini test on the concept and take it. Get your answers checked by an expert. Look for the concepts you are weak at and work on them. Visit sample papers and exam resources. (c) Online resources Although presented in a structured way, the NCERT questions are not comprehensive and very probing. You can only identify the larger chinks in your preparation from it. The types of questions in the question bank may not be application and understanding-oriented. Another difficulty is that it may not be easy to get your answers evaluated by somebody every single time. This is where online resources like www. topperlearning. com can give you an edge. The tests appearing here are free and evaluation is done at a more advanced platform than that provided by any other available online sources. The main advantage of the tests available on the web site is that they are completely NCERT-based and are very detailed. The tests are designed to identify even the minutest chinks in your preparation. A detailed advisory, pinpointing the areas that you need to focus is automatically generated at the end of the test. Identifying the chinks in your preparation is just the first step but perhaps the most important one towards a perfect score. It is equally important that you fill in these chinks with the help of your teachers, peers and adequate practice material including your text book.

Poverty and Pollution in Japan, Europe and North America Research Paper - 1

Poverty and Pollution in Japan, Europe and North America - Research Paper Example Many Third World cities have significantly high concentrations of industries and the industrial output also forms a prominent part of the world’s industrial production. These Third world cities face equivalent environmental pollution. Over the years the industrial development in these cities or city-regions has progressed tremendously and the greater the industrial development, the bigger will be the magnitude of the environmental pollution faced by the inhabitants of the countries. An inter-relation of poverty and pollution will be highlighted through a case presentation and the ethical implications of the business owners towards the society, basic rights of the humans for a cleaner environment and the reasons for industrial development in Third World countries will be discussed in relation to the case study. Popularly referred as Brazil’s â€Å"valley of death†, this particular valley, Cubatao, is a home to 100,000 people, living amidst critical environmental circumstances. The valley can be considered as the most polluted place on Earth where the inhabitants are constantly faced with tons of pollutants discharged by the industrial plants each day. The air, in which the inhabitants breathe daily, is polluted with a plethora of toxins, predominantly benzene which is a known carcinogen. 13,000 urban residents suffer from respiratory disease and infant mortality rate is 10 percent higher as compared to the whole region. The residents are, however, completely aware of the circumstances and the poor health conditions of their children and families, but the industrial plants are a source of employment for them. Few wish to move out of the valley, but their financial status doesn’t allow them to do so. The circumstances in the valley of Brazil, pointing out that poor have t o face the price for industrial  development. They are faced with environmental hazards and they cannot even reach out for environmental protection due to their low economic conditions (Shaw 2011).  

Non Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Non - Essay Example The painting has a symmetrical balance. The characters in the painting get provided with equal weight as the artist appears to have evenly divided the painting into two equal pieces by an imaginary line in the middle of the peace. The characters on each half of the painting also get drawn through the middle of each pane. The artist uses balance to evenly contrast the two emotions of the characters in the painting (Clarke 34). The artist uses a vertical color that divides the piece evenly into two. The artist uses one half to present the happy and smiling character, and the other half he employs to depict the sad character. The artist also employs the use of a curved white line around the hair of the character with a smiling face which assists to further depict the softening effect, pleasing, and sensual quality of the character. The artist uses a variety of color to communicate the emotions represented by the characters in the painting. One half of the painting gets dominated by brig ht colors while the other gets dominated by dark colors. On the character with a smiling face and what appears to be a happy mood, the artist employs the use of white tints of yellow, brown, blue, purple, and black. The use of a variety of tinted colors makes this half of the painting easily striking compared to the other half. ... The use of these shades provides the character with a heavy look. The artist employs the use of diagonal lines on both halves of the painting. On the background of each character, there appear diagonal lines with varying tint and shades. On the background of the happy character, the artist uses cross-cutting diagonal lines of white tint lines of clue. The background of the sad character gets characterized by cross-cutting diagonal lines of brown shade. The use of diagonal lines in the piece by the artist assists to create movement within the picture and thus create varying focal points within the artwork. The artist also draws a balance at the center of the piece by using an almost vertical line that consists of multiple colors of different shades and tints. Through the use of various colors and lines, the artist employs the use of texture throughout the painting. The half with a happy character has a smooth texture. The artist achieves this by using white tint of various colors. The white tint used on this half of the painting provides it with a light feel. The artist also seems to have employed the use of smooth and gentle brush strokes on this half of the painting (Clark 67). The artist also uses straight diagonal lines in the background of the character making this half of the painting to have an overall smooth feel. The use of dark shade on the half with the sad character provides the painting with a rough feel. The dark shade paint used provides a thick feel to this half of the painting. The shade on this half of the piece appears to have gotten created seem to have gotten created out of broad and impulse brush strokes. This provides the sad character with a dynamic and rough feel. Emphasis on the painting is on the contrast of the two characters within

African history- railway strike in west French Africa Essay

African history- railway strike in west French Africa - Essay Example African nations have a dynamic history in the events of their colonial periods. Respective nations in Africa were under the rule of diverse colonialist nations. For instance, most of the West African nations were colonized by France. In most cases, the colonial regimes had predetermined capitalist interests. Therefore, they exploited Africans for cheap access of resources. West African was under the colonial regime of France. The colonial period in this region had significant historical events that defined the conflicting relationship amongst the French colonialists and the African natives. These significant events were documented by diverse scholars. Ousmane Sembene and Frederick Cooper were key writers that recorded the colonial events in West Africa. Sembene’s and Cooper’s literal productions have both similarities and differences. Similarities As denoted previously, the literal productions by Sembene and Cooper possess significant similarities. These documents are s imilar through their exploration of conflict and disharmonious interests of the French colonialists and the West Africa natives. Sembene produced his literal record of the colonial events in the form of a novel. He therefore inserts fictional characters and settings of the factual event in the colonial periods of West Africa. Through his text, Sembene explores the major conflict between the colonialists and the West African natives in diverse ways. Sembene defines the ramifications of a previous strike through the flashback of the character Naikoro1. She grieves in pain upon the consideration of her loss of her husband and the disappearance of her son. This flashback by old Naikoro portrays a heated conflict and antagonism that existed between the colonialists and the West African natives2. It is therefore evident that the native Africans had perceived the need for freedom long before the railway strike in 1947. They had premeditated the move of a strike in reference to the existent conflict with the interests of the French regime. In the event of the flashback, Naikoro becomes agitated by Bakayoko’s step-daughter. She had spoken French and Naikoro was irritated by this fact3. This tendency demonstrated by the character represented the resentment that native Africans had against the French regime. Cooper also demonstrated the conflict amongst the larger groups of West African natives and the French colonialists. Cooper produced an analysis of the events in colonial and post-colonial West Africa. His literal record of the events is factual and non-fictional. This article gives a comprehensive account and analysis of the events of the railway strike. It also factors in the eventualities of the railway strike in 1947. Cooper defines the strike as a result of the strong integration amongst the African communities4. The railway strike lasted for approximately five months and it was planned from the community level amongst the West African natives. This artic le therefore defines the West African communities as cohesive for the purpose of freedom attainment. Members of diverse communities reached a concrete agreement of paralyzing the railway operations. Therefore, this is an evident reflection of conflict and antagonism amongst the African natives and the French regime. The conflict is defined through the premeditation of West African communities to launch a railway strike in the quest for equality and freedom5. Sembene and Cooper present a growing trend of the rivalry between the French colonialists and the West African natives. They are in a conflict that tends to grow in the progression of time. This is a tendency that is described by both writers within their

Pop And Jazz Report Guidelines Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Pop And Jazz Report Guidelines - Essay Example Saturday, the 25th day of June was the date when Darius Jones trio took to the podium to dazzle the crowd with their jazz pieces (Lavelle 12). The scene for the Undead Jazz Festival was spread across different venues throughout New York City. This was not a brilliant idea as there was confusion on where and when the individuals and groups would play with some missing out on the action due to this. Over fifty jazz groups braced the event much to the surprise of the organizers and eleven venues were picked for each night during this year’s festival. Le Poisson Rounge, Kenny‘s Castaways, Sullivan Hall was picked as the opening venue in Manhattan scheduled for June 23rd. The Bell House in Park Slope, Brooklyn hosted the events of June the 24th and Public Assembly, Cubana Social, Cameo Gallery in Williamsburg, Brooklyn hosted the events of June the 26th.Darius Jones trio was scheduled to perform at Littlefield, Homage Skate Park and cross fit gym in Gowanus, Brooklyn (Lavelle 23). The stage at Homage Skate Park training facility was improvised and the acoustics were not as brilliant as expected. Plenty of unwarranted reverb was experienced with an occasional echo and feedback. This did not stop the 3,500 people in attendance from enjoying the music. Both the young and old were in attendance here and the audience was multi disciplinary, with a little bit of everybody being present, from aspiring jazz musicians to renowned performers from different generations (Lavelle 67). Jazz was obviously the group’s music genre of choice, with a contemporary feel and I must say they did not disappoint. The group is made up of three musicians with Darius Jones on the saxophone, Jason Nazary on drums and Adam Lane on bass who are all professional musicians. Voice was not an instrument of choice during this performance (Lavelle 45). These musicians seemed to know their instruments pretty well as they showed considerable expertise and skill both in the music playe d and especially in the improvisation. Darius played a series of runs and drills flowing through the blue scale. The fact that he included modulation, crescendo and diminuendo in his play portrayed him as a gifted jazz musician and the audience seemed to agree (Lavelle 47). The bass player, Adam Lane was the backbone of the trio, playing the underlying bass ling that guided the improvisation, though he would wonder off at times before swiftly and accurately going back to his part. The drums were played almost perfectly with Jason Nazary dictating the tempo and incorporating different speeds in the music. The drums created the beginning of all the songs and picked turns in ending them with the alto saxophone creating the ending melody at times (Lavelle 36). The music was really enjoyable and had a complex groove though I still feel more could have been done to incorporate and create a cool mix of classical and contemporary jazz. The set became surprising due to the group’s wid e range of creativity. Jones playing the alto saxophone gave the enthusiastic audience a taste of firm, earth bound music while exploring different feels in it too. Jones’ music had a clear cut intense sound flowing through the notes from the high ones to the low ones (Lavelle 58). The music played involved gradual crescendo and intensity. It slowly picked up pace and became louder. Rubato melodies characterized the first two songs but according to me,

The effect of various types of electoral balloting on election results Research Paper - 1

The effect of various types of electoral balloting on election results - Research Paper Example Paper ballots for political elections first appeared in America in 1889 (Fund 7). Originally, voters would write the name of their candidate of choice on a piece of paper (Fund 9). In modern times, parties preprint ballot papers, and the voter selects their preferred candidate by ticking or crossing (Fund 9). Incidence of human error that may occur while utilizing such a ballot is high. However, the reason why this system is ineffective is the laws that govern the likely occurrence of these errors. The Supreme Court set standards that ensure objectivity and fairness in the vote counting process (Segal et al 309). However, these standards seem prejudiced because they allow the skilled vote counters the privilege to utilize arguments such as technicalities to disqualify a vote even in situations where the voter displays intent (Streb 74). The ruling party in most instances may use these standards to reduce the votes for the opposition. For instance, the party may ensure its voter offic ials train better than those of the opposition allowing them to detect â€Å"technicalities† with much more ease than the opposition’s officials (Fund 35). As such, the officials favor voter intent for their party while rejecting voter intent for other parties. Currently, less than 2% of American voters utilize this system (Streb 92). Hand counting ballot papers is a time consuming cumbersome process (Streb 91). This may lead to errors as the electoral officials become overwhelmed by the counting. This method also has a high level of fraud as it is easy to steal or misplace them (Streb 91). Mechanical lever machines first appeared in America in the 1892 elections. Their popularity over the years that followed reflects on the fraudulent nature of the paper ballot that people were trying to escape (Avaliktos 160). The citizenry trusted technology (hence the machine) over human

Globalization as an ingrained culture of capitalism Essay

Globalization as an ingrained culture of capitalism - Essay Example The paper tells that through years globalization has raised doubts in our minds. There has been a constant debate on the pros and cons of globalization. Many have debated this phenomenon is a result of the telecommunication boom leading to turning the world into a global village. With a growing sense of unease among many of us, the current trends in global capitalism and global society are being constantly reviewed and reiterated. It has been argued by many theorists that the characteristic aspect of the globalized economy is the market economy. However, some have maintained that it is not so much market economy but capitalism that characterizes today’s time. Trying to understand the rules that guided capitalism in earlier days will help to understand the new form of capitalism, â€Å"globalization†, today. Eighteenth-century definition of capitalism refers to an economic and social regime in which the benefits and ownership of productive assets were appropriated by the minority to the exclusion of the many. The driving force was money which was used to make more money by any means available to those who already have a great deal. Capitalism has not been concerned with the efficient allocation of resources to meet the needs of common man thus resulting in inequality and deprivation mostly. The ideal of capitalism is a borderless global economy in which money and goods can be moved freely in search of short-term maximum profits without regard to the consequence for people, communities, and nature.  

Linking the Balanced Scorecard to Strategy Essay Example for Free

Linking the Balanced Scorecard to Strategy Essay â€Å"Balanced Scorecard† is the tool for motivating and measuring business unit performance with four perspectives financial, customer, internal business processes, and learning and growth. These days, it becomes so complicated and complex to navigate competitive environment, thus some people figured out that balanced scorecard could be used as the tool for linking multiple strategies. It contains both financial and non-financial measures. It was revealed that the measure should include both outcome measures and the performance drivers of those outcomes. It turns out that there are strategic measures for the four perspectives each. First of all, Financial performance measures define the long-run objectives of the business unit. Business units can be categorized into three different stages simply rapid growth, sustain, and harvest. During rapid growth stage, businesses make rational amount of investments to develop and enhance new products and services. During sustain stage, they still attract investment and reinvestment, furthermore they are demanded to earn magnificent returns on their invested capital. During harvest stage, they only focus on maximizing cash flow back to the corporation rather than investment. Moreover, there are financial themes that can be linked to the strategies – revenue growth and mix, cost reduction/productivity improvement, and asset utilization/investment strategy. Secondly, in the Customer perspective, managers identify the customer and market segments. It includes customer satisfaction, customer retention, new customer acquisition, customer profitability, and market and account share in targeted segments. Customer retention defines that retaining existing customers in the segment is the way for maintaining or increasing market share in targeted segments. Customer acquisition identifies acquiring new customers as the way. Customer satisfaction is the matter of meeting customers’ needs and it is the measurement of the feedback. Customer profitability means that businesses want to measure not only the satisfaction of the customer, but also the profitability that customers can evoke. Thirdly, in Internal Business Process perspective, executives identify the critical internal processes in which the organization must excel. It enables business unit to deliver on the value propositions of customers in targeted market segments, and to satisfy shareholder expectations of excellent financial returns. On the other hand, it means there are the process that customer need turned into customer need satisfaction through innovation cycle, operations cycle, and post-sale service cycle. Fourthly, in Learning Growth perspective, it identifies the infra-structure that the organization has to build to create long-term growth and improvement. It comes from three sources that people, systems, and organizational procedures. As I mentioned above, it has been the trend to link and mix multiple scorecard measures into a single strategy. The multiple measures on a properly constructed balanced scorecard should consist of a linked series of objectives and measures that are both consistent and mutually reinforcing. The scorecard should incorporate the complex set of cause-and-effect relationships, outcomes performance drivers and linked to financial. Cause and effect relationships can be expressed by a sequence of if-then statements and pervade all four perspectives of balanced scoreboard. It can be described as the process â€Å"employee skills(learning growth)→process quality/process cycle time(internal) →on-time delivery→customer loyalty(customer) →ROCE(financial)†. Outcomes and performance drivers reflect the common goals of many strategies, as well as similar structures across industries and companies. Therefore, a good balanced scoreboard should have a mix of core outcome measures and performance drivers, that’s why businesses care both outcomes and performance drivers. Even though the strategy should have to emphasize both financial and non-financial measures, in the sense of improving business unit performance, we have to consider financial measures little bit more. Ultimately, causal paths from all the measures on a scorecard should be linked to financial objectives. In conclusion, the balanced scorecard is more than a collection of financial and non-financial measurements. It is the translation of the business unit’s strategy into a linked set of measures that identify both the long-term strategic objectives, as well as the mechanisms for achieving and obtaining feedback on those objectives. This thesis could be applied on the Metro Bank case and National Insurance Company case.

Development of Project Management Plan

Development of Project Management Plan LITERATURE REVIEW Having seen in the previous chapter about the Project management is a carefully planned and organized effort to accomplish a specific (and usually) one-time effort, for example, implementing a new computer system. Project management includes developing a project plan, which includes defining project goals and objectives, specifying tasks or how goals will be achieved, what resources are need, and associating budgets and timelines for completion. It also includes implementing the project plan, along with careful controls to stay on the critical path, that is, to ensure the plan is being managed according to plan. Project management usually follows major phases (with various titles for these phases), including feasibility study, project planning, implementation, evaluation and support/maintenance. Comninos and Frigenti (2002 p.72) defines Project management as â€Å" The application of knowledge, skills, tools and techniques to project activities to meet project requirements. Further Haynes (1995 pp. 623) defines project management as â€Å" Project management concentrates on the project . A project is an undertaking that has a beginning and an end and is carried out to meet established goals within cost , schedule and quality objectives . Project management brings together and optimizes the resources necessary to complete the project successfully . These resources include the skills , talents and co-operative effort of a team of people , facilities , tools and equipment ; information systems and techniques and moneyâ€Å" Duncan (1995 pp. 742) has a similar view â€Å"Project management is the application of knowledge, skills, tools and techniques to a broad range of activities in order to meet the requirements â€Å" Harrison ((1988 pp.62) states these definition as â€Å"The application of modern management techniques and systems to the execution of a project from start to finish, to achieve predetermined objectives of scope, quality, time and cost, to the equal satisfaction of those involved† Cleland and Gareis (1993 pp.58) states that â€Å"Project management is the ability to define, schedule and assign project activities; record project issues; monitor progress and report changes in activity accomplishment and issue resolution; and maintain and control changes to designs, plans and issue lists† Similarly Morris (1997 pp. 221) defines as â€Å"Planning, monitoring and control of all aspects of a project and the motivation of all those involved in it to achieve the project objectives on time and to the specified cost, quality and performance† Ciborra (2002 pp. 525) defines Information System (IS) as â€Å"†¦the system of persons, data records and activities that process the data and information in a given organization, including manual processes or automated processes. Usually the term is used erroneously as a synonym for computer-based information systems, which is only the Information technologies component of an Information System. The computer-based information systems are the field of study for Information technologies (IT)† Project management is concerned with managing the entity called ‘People. There is no single universal definition of a software project , although some definitions do have similar structure. â€Å" Projects consume a variety of resources , Projects have a specific start and end point (or life cycle), Projects have a owner (i.e. consumer ), Projects have a specific budget , Project have a clear method , Projects have finite objectives. â€Å"A unique undertaking with a concise life cycle , start and end dates , a finite budget , resource allocation and defined outcome or objective † (Gary 2001 p.25) 2.1 Preview of software industry in India The software industry is one of the fastest growing industries and highest earners of foreign exchange in the Indian economy. With help from the Indian Government including tax benefits and the development of infrastructure links, the software sector has grown over 56% annually since 1995. Software exports currently reach about 95 countries and account for 10.5% of Indias total exports.There is, therefore, significant interaction on the global level between IT companies and other countries and companies, which might account for the lead Infosys has taken amongst its peers in the field of CSR (Narayana Murthy CEO Infosys , 2006 15/02/07) The India Software Industry has brought about a tremendous success for the emerging economy. The software industry is the main component of the Information technology in India. Indias pool of young aged manpower is the key behind this success story. Presently there are more than 500 software firms in the country which shows the monumental advancement that the India Software Industry has experienced (IIT,2002 p.4) 2.2 Infosys and its relation to software project management Founded in 1981 in Bangalore by Narayana Murthy and six colleagues, Infosys is positioned to integrate the needs of vendors and service providers, using existing solutions or relying on new product development. The company does the necessary integration, software development, feature enhancements testing, release and third level support. It provides solutions to the financial sector the biggest chunk of its business- as well as to 460 other clients across a broad spectrum of other industries. (www.infosys.com 14/02/08) In terms of project management, software project work is split into two components: onsite and offshore, according to where it can be best done, at the lowest cost, and with the lowest level of acceptable risk, thereby de-coupling capability development and delivery. Although Infosys was not spared by the dotcom crash in 2001, thanks in part to the loyalty built up among employees the business bounced back, and by 2006 its market capitalization was US$18 billion. For Murthy, leading by example is what counts. This translates into three core values: respect for the individual, data-based decision making, and embracing constant change by forcing people to share their innovations. Infosys has established a systematic pattern of succession planning whereby board members remain in the vanguard but are underpinned by a three-tier leadership structure for high-potential managers. Younger employees are viewed as the eyes and the ears of the company, bringing to the forefront contemporary issues that might otherwise be overlooked (Manfred , Vries, Agrawal and Florent-Treacy 2006 p.121) Since incorporation, Infosys annual revenue has rapidly increased and it reached 1 trillion in 2006. Unlike many other Indian IT companies Infosys has concentrated on building software applications and this has contributed to its global success Infosys Technologies employs nearly 17,000 people worldwide, almost 10,000 of whom are software professionals. 116 new clients in the financial year (FY) 2002 added to the already prestigious list that includes Airbus, Cisco, Nordstrom and Boeing. Retail banking services account for around 4% of total revenue. The company vision is to be the best globally, commercially and ethically. As such, Infosys has developed a C-Life principle of core values that it aims to honour in all aspects of its business conduct . C LIFE represents Customer delight , Lead by example , Integrity and transparency , Fairness and Excellence (www.infy.com 15/06/07) 2.3 Project Management Processes (Infosys based approach) Turner J and Rodney (2005 p..43) states that ‘ A project management process is the management process of planning and controlling the performance or execution of a project ‘ Although all projects are different and have unique features m there are elements which are common to most . A process model needs a set of features which Are adaptable to a wide range of applications Provide a complete and adequate definition of any project to which they are applied Are easy to assimilate , with the key tasks and points of interest highlighted Are suitable to act as a memorandum and checklist to ensure that everything is covered Do not impose any unnecessary constraints on the use of tools , techniques and methods during the projects A process model can be helpful to a project manager in planning the project but obviously cannot be followed blindly and must be tailored to meet the requirements of the project . Not all the elements of the process model will be appropriate , but the model can be used as a checklist to ensure that nothing important is missed from the project . The process model is also used to help define what is required of the project manager at each stage in the project and to define the inputs and outputs of each stage . (Van Vliet , 2004 p.52) Infosys executes hundreds of projects each year. Full responsibility for executing a project rests with the project manager, who must make sure that the project team delivers high-quality software to the customer on time and within cost. To help the project manager fulfill this responsibility, support from the organization is necessary. (Mahajan and Ives , 2006 p.231) This section provides a brief background Infosys support for managing software projects. For a project team to successfully execute a project, it must perform hundreds of tasks, many of them interdependent. Effectively managing this process is extremely important for success. (Harvey 2003 p.52)At Infosys, the set of activities executed by a project manager is specified in the project management process. It is fairly standard, having three main stages: Software project planning Software project execution Software project closure 2.3.1 Software Project Planning The key to a successful software project is in the planning. Creating a project plan is the first thing one should do when undertaking any kind of project. Often project planning is ignored in favor of getting on with the work. However, many people fail to realize the value of a project plan in saving time, money and many problems. A project is successful when the needs of the stakeholders have been met. A stakeholder is anybody directly or indirectly impacted by the project. (Lackman 1987 p.57) As a first step it is important to identify the stakeholders of software project. It is not always easy to identify the stakeholders of a project, particularly those impacted indirectly. (Lewis J 1995) Examples of stakeholders are: The project sponsor The customer who receives the deliverables The users of the project outputs The project manager and project team Once understanding who the stakeholders are, the next step is to establish their needs. The best way to do this is by conducting stakeholder interviews. Considerable time can be utilized during the interviews to draw out the true needs that create real benefits. Often stakeholders will talk about needs that arent relevant and dont deliver benefits. These can be recorded and set as a low priority. ( Berlick 1992 p.72) The next step once after all the interviews done and have a comprehensive list of needs it is now to prioritize them. From the prioritized list its important to create a set of goals that can be easily measured. A technique for doing this is to review them against the SMART (specific, measurable, agreed upon, realistic and time-based ) principle. This way it will be easy to know when a goal has been achieved. Once having established a clear set of goals they should be recorded in the project plan. It can be useful to also include the needs and expectations of the end users- stakeholders. (Thomsett 1989 p.51) At Infosys , in the project planning stage, as revealed by Marsh (1998 p.17) , the project manager reviews contractual commitments and creates a plan to meet them. Creating a project plan involves defining a life-cycle process to be followed, estimating the effort and schedule, preparing a detailed schedule of tasks, and so on. It also includes planning for quality and configuration management as well as risk management. In this phase, the major activities of the project manager are as follows: According to McManus (1997 p.69) , the project manager performs startup and administrative tasks and creates the project plan and schedule. He is also responsible for defining the objectives of the project . The suitable standard process for the project execution is identified . Also the standard process to meet project requirements are tailer . Also a process for managing changes in requirements is designed . The estimation of effort involved is undertaken . Also the plan for human resources and team organization is determined . The project milestones are defined and schedules created accordingly. Also the quality of objectives and a quality plan to achieve them are determined . A defect prevention plan in designed. The risks are identified and plans are made to mitigate them. A measurement plan for the project is defined .A training plan for the project is designed . The project-tracking procedures are analyzed for effective execution . Also a review of the project plan and schedul e are performed . Authorization from senior management is obtained . The configuration management plan and defined and reviewed . Also orientation of the project team to the project management plan is executed In addition to the project manager, this phase involves the customer, an SEPG representative, and the business manager for the project. The entry criterion is that the contract or project authorization is available. The exit criterion is that the project plan has been documented and group reviewed (Morgon 1986 p.19) 2.3.2 Software Project Execution According to ,Harvey ( 2003 p.167) ,the purpose of Project Execution and Control is to develop the product or service that the project was commissioned to deliver. Typically, this is the longest phase of the project management lifecycle, where most resources are applied. Project Execution and Control utilizes all the plans, schedules, procedures and templates that were prepared and anticipated during prior phases. Unanticipated events and situations will inevitably be encountered, and the Project Manager and Project Team will be taxed to capacity to deal with them while minimizing impact on the projects CSSQ. Project Execution and Control Kick-off is where the project manager conducts a meeting to formally begin the project execution and control phase, orient new project team members, and review the documentation and current status of the project. The purpose of Project Execution and Control Kickoff is to formally acknowledge the beginning of project execution and control and facilitate the transition from project planning. Similar to project planning kick-off, project execution and control kickoff ensures that the project is still on track and focused on the original business need. Many new team members will be introduced to the project at this point, and must be thoroughly oriented and prepared to begin work. Most importantly, current project status is reviewed and all prior deliverables are re-examined, giving all new team members a common reference point. (Rodney 1999 p.123) Manage CSSQ is where the project manager must manage changes to the project scope and project schedule, implement quality assurance and quality control processes according to the quality standards, and control and manage costs as established in the project budget. (SEI 1996 p.4)The purpose of Manage CSSQ is to manage changes to project scope , control the project schedule and manage schedule changes , implement quality assurance and quality control , processes according to the quality standards revised during project planning control and manage costs established in the project Monitor and Control Risks, where the project manager and project team utilize the risk management plan prepared in previous phases, and develop and apply new response and resolution strategies to unexpected eventualities.Risks are potential future events that can adversely affect a projects Cost, Schedule, Scope or Quality (CSSQ). In prior phases, the project manager defined these events as accurately as possible, determined when they would impact the project, and developed a risk management plan. As the impact dates draw closer, it is important to continue re-evaluating probability, impact, and timing of risks, as well as to identify additional risk factors and events. When the risk event actually occurs, the risk (which is by definition a future, potential event) becomes an issue (which is by definition a current, definite condition) and issue monitoring and control takes over. The purpose of monitor and control risks is to deploy the risk management plans prepared in prior phases to anticipate project challenges, and to develop and apply new response and resolution strategies to unexpected eventualities. (Humphrey 1989 p.92) Manage Project Execution, where the Project Manager must manage every aspect of the Project Plan to ensure that all the work of the project is being performed correctly and on time.Project Execution is typically the part of the lifecycle of a project when the majority of the actual work to produce the product is performed and the majority of the project budget is expended. The purpose of manage project execution is to manage every aspect of the project plan as work is being done to make certain the project is a success. This process is performed concurrently with the manage CSSQ and monitor and control risks processes. The tasks in this process are performed concurrently and repeatedly as various aspects of the product of the project are constructed, tested, and accepted. (Dion 1994 p.172) Gain Project Acceptance, where the Project Manager, customer decision-makers and project sponsor acknowledge that all deliverables produced during project execution and control have been completed, tested, accepted and approved, and that the product or service of the project has been successfully transitioned to the performing organization.The purpose of Gain Project Acceptance is to formally acknowledge that all deliverables produced during project execution and control have been completed, tested, accepted, and approved by the projects Customers and the Project Sponsor, and that the product or service the project developed was successfully transitioned from the Project Team to the Performing Organization. Formal acceptance and approval also signify that the project is essentially over, and is ready for Project Closeout. (Duran 1988 p.49) At Infosys , the second phase, as in the words of Finney ( 1999 p.193) , project execution, involves executing the project plan, tracking the status of the project, and making corrections whenever project performance strays from the path laid down in the project plan. In other words, it involves tracking and controlling the implementation of the project process. This phase is the longest in the project management process, incorporating periodic tasks such as monitoring project status and quality and taking any needed corrective steps. In this phase, as said by ( Harvey 2003 p.62) , the project manager executes the project as per the project plan. , tracks the project status., reviews the project status with senior management. , monitor compliance with the defined project process. , analyze defects and perform defect prevention activities, monitor performance at the program level and conduct milestone reviews and replan if necessary. Other members of the team also participate in this stage. The entry criterion is that the project plan is complete and approved, and the exit criterion is that all work products delivered are accepted by the customer 2.3.3 Software Project Closure The Project closure report is produced at the end of the Project, and provides the Project Board with a review of the overall Project and an assessment of how successfully the Project has met its objectives. This report will be presented at the final Project Board meeting, and must be signed off by the Project Board as part of the process of formally closing the Project. (Watts 1987 p.122) As said by Sanders and Curran (1994 p.623) , a carefully structured project closure phase should ensure that the project is brought to a controlled end. The project manager should prepare the end project report, which details the main findings and outcome of the project and represents a formal review of the projects degree of success. The project manager should organize the project closure meeting and draw up a list of who should attend. This meeting is concerned with reviewing the project and ensuring the completeness of all of the major project deliverables. It is the final formal control point apart from the post implementation review; and should be attended by the project owner and the overall project manager. The basic question facing the attendees is: Did the project deliver its intended end-product within the time and budgetary limits set? According to Thomsett (1989 p.62) , The last stage of the project management process, project closure, involves a systematic wind-up of the project after customer acceptance. The main goal here is to learn from the experience so that the process can be improved. Post-project data analysis constitutes the main activity; metrics are analyzed, process assets (materials, such as templates and guidelines, used to aid in managing the process itself) are collected for future use, and lessons are recorded. Because learning from the project is the main goal, this is a group activity that involves the project manager, the SEPG, and other members of the team. The entry criterion is that the customer has accepted the work products. The exit criterion is that a post project meeting has been conducted. The main outputs of this phase are the project closure report and the collected process assets. 2.4 Capability Maturity Model CMM is a development methodology thats designed to help projects make use of reusable processes . There are some pain involved in making the switch , but the benefits to development staff and the organization make it worthwhile The CMM describes a continuum of characteristics based on how well your company or organization follows common and repeatable processes to get your work done. CMMs have been developed for software acquisition, people, and software (Paulk 1993 p.342) Although the SEI continues to enhance and expand the scope and breadth of various CMM models, the primary focus for most companies continues to be software development. Perhaps the biggest reason for looking at software development is that the process uses a fair amount of creativity, which can lead to unpredictable results. However, much (but not all) of the software development process can be standardized using a common set of processes. Common processes can be set up for the project management side Moving up the CMM levels allows an organization to standardize its software development processes in areas that can be successfully repeated from project to project Organizations that use the CMM for software development describe their level of standardization against CMM benchmarks using a scale of 1 to 5. The low end of the scale describes companies that arent using repeatable processes; much of their work is chaotic and ad hoc. The high end describes companies that use defined and re peatable processes, collect metrics to help them continuously improve their processes, and look for creative ways to do things better on an ongoing basis.(Watts 1987 p.79) Many companies are seeing that they can drive business value by implementing good, reusable processes throughout their organizations. The CMM provides a framework that companies can use to measure themselves on a standard 1 to 5 scale. Most companies today are at level 1 and would love to get as high as level 2. Most managers and organizations realise that they should have common and repeatable processes. However, pain will definitely be involved (Gilb 1998 p.122) Infosys has been assessed at level 5 (the highest level) of the Capability Maturity Model (CMM). By extracting project management processes from the set of processes at Infosys, this book also illustrates how projects are managed in a high-maturity organization. Through this illustration, I hope to bring the benefits of the CMM to project managers who have not studied it because of lack of time, because they regard it as being for process folks or because they have found it difficult to relate the CMM to project management practices. (www.infosys.com 02.07.07) 2.5 KPAs and its importance in Project Management Each KPA specifies goals that the processes of the organization must meet to satisfy that KPA. In addition, each KPA specifies a group of activities, called key practices, that collectively satisfy the goals of that KPA. In many senses, the goals for each KPA capture its essence. They specify the objectives that the CMM has set for the processes relating to the KPA. To illustrate the KPAs associated with project management, we briefly discuss here the goals of these KPAs. These goals are taken from the CMM,with some minor changes in the wording of some goals. ( Cooper and Woolgar , 1994 p.589) 2.5.1 Goals of KPAs at Level 2 2.5.1.1 Requirement Management RM Requirements management is all about balance, communication, and adjustment along the way. To prevent one class of requirements from over-riding another, constant communication among members of the development team is critical. For example, in software development for internal applications, the business has such strong needs that it may ignore user requirements, or believe that in creating use cases, the user requirements are being taken care of. (Bevan 1992 p.165) 2.5.1.2 Software Project Planning SPP The purpose of Software Project Planning is to establish reasonable plans for performing the software engineering and for managing the software project. Software Project Planning involves developing estimates for the work to be performed, establishing the necessary commitments, and defining the plan to perform the work (Barker 1992 p.522) 2.5.1.3 Software Project Tracking and Oversight SPTO The purpose of Software Project Tracking and Oversight is to provide adequate visibility into actual progress so that management can take effective actions when the software projects performance deviates significantly from the software plans. Software Project Tracking and Oversight involves tracking and reviewing the software accomplishments and results against documented estimates, commitments, and plans, and adjusting these plans based on the actual accomplishments and results (Budlong and Peterson 1996 p.523) 2.5.1.4 Software Subcontract Management SSM The purpose of Software Subcontract Management is to select qualified software subcontractors and manage them effectively. Software Subcontract Management involves selecting a software subcontractor, establishing commitments with the subcontractor, and tracking and reviewing the subcontractors performance and results. These practices cover the management of a software (only) subcontract, as well as the management of the software component of a subcontract that includes software, hardware, and possibly other system components (ISO 9000-3 p.5) 2.5.1.5 Software Quality Assurance SQA Software Quality Assurance (SQA) is defined as a planned and systematic approach to the evaluation of the quality of and adherence to software product standards, processes, and procedures. SQA includes the process of assuring that standards and procedures are established and are followed throughout the software acquisition life cycle. Compliance with agreed-upon standards and procedures is evaluated through process monitoring, product evaluation, and audits. Software development and control processes should include quality assurance approval points, where an SQA evaluation of the product may be done in relation to the applicable standards. (Kontonya and Sommerville , 1998 p.212) 2.5.1.6 Software Configuration Management SCM In software engineering, software configuration management (SCM) is the task of tracking and controlling changes in the software. Configuration management practices include revision control and the establishment of baselines (Keller et al 1990 p.521 ) 2.5.2 Goals of KPAs at Level 3 2.5.2.1 Integrated Software Management ISM The purpose of Integrated Software Management is to integrate the software engineering and management activities into a coherent, defined software process that is tailored from the organizations standard software process and related process assets, which are described in Organization Process Definition. Integrated Software Management involves developing the projects defined software process and managing the software project using this defined software process. The projects defined software process is tailored from the organizations standard software process to address the specific characteristics of the project (Saiedian Hossein and Kuzara 1995 p.321) 2.5.2.2 Intergroup Coordination IC Intergroup Coordination involves the software engineering groups participation with other project engineering groups to address system-level requirements, objectives, and issues. Representatives of the projects engineering groups participate in establishing the system-level requirements, objectives, and plans by working with the customer and end users, as appropriate. These requirements, objectives, and plans become the basis for all engineering activities (TickIT Guide p.21) 2.5.2.3 Peer Reviews PR In software development, peer review refers to a type of software review in which a work product (normally some form of document) is examined by its author and one or more colleagues, in order to evaluate its technical content and quality When performed as part of each Software development process activity, peer reviews identify problems and fix them early in the lifecycle. That is to say, a peer review that identifies a requirements problem during the Requirements analysis activity is cheaper and easier to fix than during the Software architecture or Software testing activities ( Gentleman 1996 p.92) 2.5.3 Goals for KPAs at Level 4 2.5.3.1 Quantitative Process Management QPM Quantitative Process Management involves establishing goals for the performance of the projects defined software process, which is described in the Integrated Software Management key process area, taking measurements of the process performance, analyzing these measurements, and making adjustments to maintain process performance within acceptable limits. When the process performance is stabilized within acceptable limits, the projects defined software process, the associated measurements, and the acceptable limits for the measurements are established as a baseline and used to control process performance quantitatively (Daly-jones and Thomas 1997 p.142) 2.5.3.2 Software Quality Management SQM Its here were the projects software quality management activities are planned . Measurable goals for software product quality and their priorities are defined . Actual progress toward achieving the quality goals for the software products is quantified and managed (Broad

Demonstrated Effectiveness of Training within the Workplace to Improve

The Quality Management Plan at Club Nova reflects two core quality improvement plans: House Cleanliness and Employee Retention. Club Nova collects member and staff satisfaction data at least semi-annually in order to analyze that data and to make headway in finding a remedy for these two issues. Alas, no solution has been found. Staff turnover rate is at an all-time high, with 6 of 10 staff having left Club Nova since July 2011. For the members, I recognize that losing valued and favored staff will result in decreased member participation and attendance, strained interactions with new staff, and overall dissatisfaction with the functioning of Club Nova. My solution is simple. Club Nova should invest in its staff. According to Nowack’s research (2011), 42.6% of those within his study reported that career growth and learning opportunities were a significant factor in their continued employment at a given job. Staff who are more knowledgeable about the Clubhouse Model and who receive various on-going training will operate a more efficient program, will experience less frustrations in dealing with the organizational style within Club Nova, and will enjoy their work significantly more thereby reducing staff turnover and improving member satisfaction. Which Staff & Members Do We Offer Training? Club Nova is a unique environment in which all members and staff function along-side each other to complete the tasks during the work-ordered day. Trainings should not be any different in this model. Tanvir, Hussain, & Janjua, (2011) defined training as the â€Å"attainment of the skill, ideas and attitudes to obtain the desired performance and results.† Given that the responsibilities of the day fall on both members and staff, each pe... ...nd Stress.† Envisia Learning, http://abstracts.envisialearning.com/78-abstractFile.pdf Olivero, G., Bane, K., & Kopelman, R. (1997). â€Å"Executive coaching as a transfer of training tool: effects on productivity in a public agency.† Public Personnel Management, 26(4), 461-469. â€Å"Schedule,† Retrieved from http://www.fountainhouse.org/content/schedule Smith, A., Oczkowski, E., & Smith, C. (2011). To have and to hold: Modelling the drivers of employee turnover and skill retention in Australian Organisations. International Journal of Human Resource Management, 22(2), 395-416. doi:10.1080/09585192.2011.540162 Tanvir, M., Hussain, A., & Janjua, S. (2011). A Remedy based Concept: Impact of Encounter Service, Culture and Employees Training on Customers Satisfaction of Hospitality Industry. Interdisciplinary Journal of Contemporary Research In Business, 3(2), 1237-1247.

Speaking of Courage Essay -- Essays Papers

Speaking of Courage In the literary work, Speaking of Courage, Tim O’Brien highlights the trying struggle of a post-war solider attempting desperately to integrate himself back into American society. Paul Berlin’s trials and tribulations exemplify the â€Å"dominance of a citizen culture in the United States,† as mentioned by Dr. Decker in class. American society does not allow for the soldiers we have sent off to fight to return as warriors. While Speaking of Courage is based on Paul’s experience after the Vietnam War the effect of the citizen culture can be seen throughout history. Americans are not generally known to have an imperial, blood thirsty nature. We choose to â€Å"conquer† the world using business or other non-violent means. In the case of the Vietnam War, our government was f...

FAMILY STRUCTURE AND NURTURE IN NEPAL AND IN THE USA :: Essays Papers

FAMILY STRUCTURE AND NURTURE IN NEPAL AND IN THE USA The meaning of family varies from place to place and from culture to culture. One all-encompassing definition that describes every type of family across the board does not exist. For instance, in places like China children can be raised apart from their father and mother in a group of women, but still count themselves a family. Alan C. Acock in his book Family Diversity and Well Being states that a married couple with no children is not considered a family (122), but some married couples may contest this theory. In fact, there are more variations on modern family structure than ever before, including non-traditional families where grandparents raise their grandchildren, adoptive families, foster families, and blended families with children from two or more sets of parents (â€Å"Power Tools†). Despite the challenges faced by many families today, I believe that the children of the current generation—known as Generation Y—can thrive as long as they receive nur ture and enrichment from their family members. As a member of Generation Y myself, I speak from first-hand experience. In the following paragraphs, I will give an account of my own upbringing in Nepal that led to my current status as a college student in the USA. I will also briefly describe family structures in America, and compare them to Nepali family structure. In the end, I propose that nurture is the key to producing well-adjusted children today, regardless of family type or where the children are raised. In Nepal, I experienced both the progressive style of family living and the older medieval style where custom and tradition count first no matter what. More than 90% of the people in Nepal who were born between 1978 and 1998 (the Generation Y youth) still live in old medieval-style families where cultural rules govern everyday life. The people of Nepal are socially segmented along lines of caste, sub-caste and ethnicity, and values and traditions also differ from one caste to another. In my caste, called Gurung, it would be permissible for me to marry my own uncle or aunt’s daughter, culturally speaking. Other castes, especially Brahmin, consider marriage between cousins a sin—something very bad. My ancestors practiced these kinds of marriages within a family in order to make the existing family stronger and inseparable.

Academic Achievement Essay

Academic Achievement This unit will help you: use your prior knowledge to help you understand what you are reading; practice reading for a specific purpose; make decisions about the relevance of a text in terms of reading purpose; read selectively in order to use appropriate information from the text. †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ The topic of this unit concerns factors that may lead to improvement in academic performance among students. It is based on three major research projects carried out in the United States. The influence of class size on academic achievement (157–159). Task 1: Predicting text content Think about what factors can have an influence on the academic achievement of the students in a school, college, or university. Look at the following list of possible influences and rate the ideas on a scale of 1–5 (1 = very little influence, 5 = very strong influence). Influence on academic performance Resources available (e. g. , computers, laboratories, textbooks) Teacher level (qualifications, experience, etc. ) Student motivation Rating 1. 3 Add and rate some of your own ideas. Then compare your list and ratings with a partner. Focus task. Your reason for reading Text 1-1 is to get some background information to help you write the following essay. English for academic study 18 Academic Achievement 1 Task 2: Reading for a purpose 2. 1 Look carefully at the title of Text 1-1. Do you think that the text will be useful for writing an assignment about academic achievement? Share your conclusions with another student. Read the introduction to Text 1-1 (lines 1–66). As you read, try to make up your mind about how useful this text might be for your purpose. When you have finished reading, circle and complete the following sentence. 2. 2 Task 3: Reading selectively 3. 1 Read the subheading (lines 67–68) and think about your own opinion on the issue. Do you think that smaller class sizes help to improve academic performance? Circle your answer then write one reason for your choice below. 3. 2 Below are some notes that have been made by another student on Text 1-1. Read lines 67–117 and check the points mentioned in the text. a) b) c) d) e) f) g) Reading & Writing 3. 3 Read lines 69–72. What does anecdotal mean? Try to guess the meaning of this word by looking carefully at the whole sentence. If the ideas in this paragraph are anecdotal, think about how seriously you should take them into account when writing your assignment. 19 3. 4 Read lines 97–117 and underline specific information from this paragraph that you might use to help in the completion of the Focus task. Think about: †¢ †¢ 3. 5 how useful you think this paragraph might be in relation to the Focus task; whether you think the sources are reliable. With a partner, compare and justify your choice of information for all four questions. Task 4: Identifying the writer’s purpose 4. 1 Read lines 118–192 and decide on the main functions of this section of text from the choices given below. For each choice, rate the function from 0–5 depending on how sure you are (5 = very sure). Study tip It can be very helpful to recognize why the writer has written a text, or a section of a text, i. e. , what the function of the text is. Function a) To persuade the readers to accept a certain point of view. b) To explain the importance of using research data instead of anecdotal explanations. c) To evaluate the importance of the research carried out into the effect of classroom size on academic achievement. d) To describe the research method used in various parts of the US into the effect of classroom size on academic achievement. 4. 2 What is the function (or functions) of Figure 1: Milestone studies in class size (page 159)? a) to summarize the content of the text b) to outline the content of certain relevant research c) to explain the importance of the STAR project d) to compare the data from research about class size Rating Task 5: Understanding referencing in texts Referencing in a text is a way of linking words and ideas together, thus  making the text more cohesive and easier to understand. The following activity will provide practice in this important skill. 5. 1 Look at line 119 of Text 1-1. What information or idea in the text do the words these findings refer to? a) The US Department of Education b) The National Assessment of Educational Progress c) Project STAR Study tip An effective reader makes use of referencing in a text to gain a clear understanding of what the author wishes to convey. 20 English for academic study Academic Achievement 5. 2 What other words or phrases (lines 119–148) refer to the same data? a) b) 5. 3 (line number (line number ) ) 1 What reasons do the writers give for ignoring the data? Complete the list below, using a similar note form. a) b) c) d) e) 5. 4 What factors, according to the writers, made Project STAR better than other poorly designed studies? Complete the list below, using a similar note form. a) b) c) d) e) Text 1-2 A case study: Shining star (p. 160) Task 6: Reading a text for closer understanding (1) 6. 1 What general point is made in the first paragraph of Text 1-2 (lines 1–11)? Find a short phrase that best summarizes this conclusion. Reading & Writing 21 21 6. 2 In the second paragraph, which of the following benefits of smaller classes do Finn and Achilles (1990) identify in their review of the project? Answer true or false and add the line number from where you found the answer. a) Better academic performance in small-sized classes. b) Students benefit at an early stage in small classes. (line number (line number ) (line number ) ) ) c) Students later continue to perform well in normal-sized classes. ) d) Average students make the most progress. e) Minority groups gained the most significant benefits. (line number (line number f) On average, ethnic minority students improved by one-fifth of standard deviation. (line number ) 6. 3 In the final paragraph, which of the findings of Finn and Achilles (ibid. ) in Ex 6. 2 does Hanushek comment on? Put a check ( ) when Hanushek agrees and a cross ( ) when he disagrees. Write N/A if Hanushek does not mention these findings. a) b) c) d) e) f) 6. 4 To what extent do you feel that the analyses of Project STAR will help you with the Focus task? Rate your opinion 0–5 (0 = not at all). Discuss your answer with a partner. Text 1-3 The Asian paradox: Huge classes, high scores (p. 161) Task 7: Reading a text for closer understanding (2) 7. 1 Discuss with a partner or in groups what you know about academic performance in developed Asian countries, and how academic success is achieved. Read lines 1–65 of Text 1-3. As you read, remember to highlight ideas that might be useful for the Focus task. What is your understanding of the â€Å"Asian paradox†? What one word in the text (lines 17–35) gives a reason for this Asian paradox? 7. 2 English for academic study 7. 3 22 Academic Achievement 7. 4 Find other short phrases in the rest of the paragraph (lines 35–48) that might provide further reasons for the apparent academic success of Japanese students. 1 7. 5 Having read the text, have you found any information that might be useful for the Focus task? Task 8: Thinking critically about the text 8. 1 Look at the list of possible influences on academic performance in Task 1 (page 18). Are there any new influences you want to add to the table, and any you want to delete? Influence on academic performance Rating 8. 2 If you added any influences to your table, what rating would you give them, on a scale of 1–5? Task 9: Making use of the text You now have some information that may help with the Focus task that you will be given in order to complete Unit 1 of English for academic study: Writing, if you are studying that course. Reading & Writing Decide now if, and how, you can use the information in Texts 1-1, 1-2 and 1-3. 23 Unit summary In this unit you have thought about using your prior knowledge to help you understand what you are reading and made decisions about the relevance of a text in terms of reading purpose. You have learned to identify the writer’s purpose and to read selectively in order to use appropriate information from the text. 1 Complete this summary about the reading skills you practiced in the first unit with some of the words from the box. understanding meaning expertly prior title critically predictions subheadings selectively purpose It is easier to read a text if you have some knowledge of the topic that the text is about. This will help you to make and will give you a , which you always need when you read. Knowing why you are reading and what you are looking for will help you to both enjoy a text and focus on it better. Reading the and any there might be will help you to quickly know if you want to read a text and how useful it will be to you. It is important to read , especially if you are short of time. Some parts of a text will provide the information you need while other parts will be less important. You will usually read a text quickly first to get a general idea of what it is about and then read more carefully for closer and to be able to think about the content. 2 Look at these possible topics of a reading passage. How much prior knowledge do you have of each topic? Mark each topic as follows: L – I know a lot about this topic, so I could make plenty of predictions. S – I know something about this topic, and so I could make a few predictions. N – I know very little or nothing about this topic, so I wouldn’t be able to make any predictions. a) increasing traffic congestion in major cities b) special education for children with learning difficulties c) the growth in the popularity of baseball in Asian countries d) the intelligence of dolphins e) the origins of development of paper making English for academic study For web resources relevant to this unit, see: www. englishforacademicstudy. com/us/student/reading/links 24 1 1. 1 Academic Achievement. This unit will help you: think about the aims of academic study, and how to achieve them; learn about the different stages of the writing process; identify and learn how to cope with difficulties in academic writing; learn how to consider the knowledge and expectations of your reader; think about different approaches to the organization of your ideas. †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ Task 1: Thinking about academic success The following questionnaire, Ex 1. 1–1. 14, will help you think about your views on the meaning of academic success and aspects of academic writing. You will then be able to discuss your views with the rest of the class. What is the aim of academic study? (Please check ( ) one or more. ) to meet intelligent people to ensure having a career or future job to discover more about theories and certain known facts to discuss philosophy to enjoy learning to enable members of society to exchange ideas that are intellectually stimulating* to develop personal growth to contribute to the social and economic development of society to pass examinations to gain a higher-level degree to improve cooperation between different members of world society * intellectually stimulating: encouraging the mind to develop further 1. 2 How important is it for you as a student to develop the following characteristics while studying at university? (Check ( ) H for High importance, M for Medium importance, L for Low importance. ) H M L knowing your strengths and weaknesses thinking about how to further develop your abilities thinking about how to approach a particular task using a logical, reasoned approach to study approaching your subject in depth being interested in finding things out learning how to study communicating results successfully Study tip Working with information is a good way of helping you develop ideas. Doing a questionnaire is one example of this, but you can do this yourself by setting clear goals for reading text, e. g. , having several clear questions you would like to answer. Reading & Writing 83 1. 3 What is academic writing? (Please check ( ) one or more. ) a mechanical exercise groups of grammatically correct sentences the clear expression of ideas, knowledge and information a form of self-expression a way of exploring, addressing and expressing academic issues a way of communicating results or information. 1. 4 To write well academically, how important are the following? (Check ( ) H for High importance, M for Medium importance, L for Low importance. ) H M L reading a lot studying grammar studying vocabulary imitating other writers writing a lot inviting others to comment on your writing going back and thinking again about what you have written rewriting repeatedly until you are satisfied understanding the process of writing meeting the needs of your reader 1. 5. How important do you think the following are when writing academic texts? (Check ( ) H for High importance, M for Medium importance, L for Low importance. ) H M L grammatical correctness spelling and punctuation (using periods, commas, etc. ) an appropriate style overall organization vocabulary good ideas good use of sources (appropriate citation, bibliography) relevance of subject content English for academic study response to the task 1. 6 In which of the following ways can you support your ideas when writing academic texts?  using personal anecdotes* using facts using statistics 84. Academic Achievement using examples using the news using information from books, articles, reports, the Internet using analogies** using the views and attitudes of others using research data * anecdote: a short, often amusing account of something that has happened ** analogy: to make or draw an analogy between two things is to show they are alike in some way 1. 7 Which of the following contribute to successful academic writing? Presenting information clearly and precisely analyzing questions and issues clearly and precisely distinguishing between relevant and irrelevant material recognizing key assumptions* identifying competing points of view demonstrating excellent reasoning and problem-solving abilities adopting a critical stance** understanding the context for which you are writing * assumption: if you make an assumption that something is true, you accept it is true without any real proof or evidence ** critical stance: to take a critical stance is to have a strong viewpoint on something after examining and judging it carefully 1. 8 When persuading your professor or other members of your academic community that your argument is valid, how important are the following? (Check ( ) H for High importance, M for Medium importance, L for Low importance. ) H M L analyzing questions stating facts reasoning your argument logically from facts explaining key terms using language appropriate to a particular subject area using other points of view to  strengthen your argument or research demonstrating the weaknesses of other people’s arguments acknowledging the limitations of your own argument or research supporting your argument with examples frequently summarizing your argument referring to well-argued conclusions 1. Reading & Writing 85 1. 9 Should you always think of academic writing as communicating with another person? Why/Why not? 1. 10 What do you do, or what do you concentrate on, when you are given a writing task: a) while you are still writing your first draft? b) when you have finished your first draft? c) before you hand in your final draft? 1. 11. What type of academic writing have you done in the past? 1. 12 What difficulties do you have with writing in English or in your own language? 86 English for academic study Academic Achievement 1. 13 What do you do when you have difficulties? 1 1. 14 Do you enjoy academic writing? Why/Why not? When you have finished the questionnaire, compare your answers with those of other people in your group. Discuss your answers, and keep notes of the discussion. Do you find that you all have very similar views and experiences? Or are your views and experiences very different? Are there any general trends among students in the group? Material adapted from White, R. V. (1994). Writing English for academic study series and Richards, R. (2001). Presenting critical thinking as a study strategy for UK higher education. Text 1 Academic achievement (pp. 157–161) You will have an opportunity to read these extracts from articles in the Scientific American during this stage. This will help you identify information that is relevant to the title of your essay. Task 2: Microskills: Planning The essay that you will prepare in this unit is on the following topic: Before you begin writing, you should spend some time: †¢ †¢ †¢thinking about exactly what the question is asking you to write about; generating ideas about the topic; this is called brainstorming; organizing your ideas into a plan. Reading & Writing As part of this preparation, you should read Texts 1-1, 1-2, and 1-3 to identify relevant information. You might also find that some of the ideas generated by the questionnaire and discussion in Task 1 will help you. 87 2. 1 Discuss what you think the key words are in the essay question: a) with a partner; b) with the whole group and your instructor. 2. 2 Spend five minutes writing down all the ideas you can think of that are relevant to the essay topic. Write notes, not complete sentences, so that your ideas flow. The order of your ideas is not important at this stage. Study tip Discuss the ideas you have written in Ex 2. 2: a) with a partner; b) with the whole group and your instructor. 2. 3 2. 4 Decide which of your ideas you are going to use in your essay. Writing down ideas quickly in note form is a very good way of unlocking your understanding. As long as you let your ideas flow and don’t try too hard, you will be surprised by what you already know. a) To help you, ask yourself these questions about your readers: †¢ What knowledge about academic study do they already have? †¢ What do you think they are interested in reading about in your essay? b) When you have decided which ideas you are going to include, organize them into a logical order in a plan. You may want to develop some of the ideas further and you may want to add a new idea. †¢ Group together ideas that seem to belong to the same paragraph. †¢ Think carefully about the order in which you will arrange the paragraphs. 2. 5 Discuss your plan with your partner. When you look at your partner’s plan, ask yourself: †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ What is the overall idea in the essay? Does the plan follow a logical sequence of ideas? Are the ideas grouped effectively into paragraphs? Is the main idea clear in each paragraph? How many paragraphs will the essay contain? If the answers to these questions are not clear from looking at your partner’s plan, ask her/him to explain. Perhaps the plan needs to be changed or developed more. Note: Remember your plan is your guide; when you think more and start writing, you may need to change it, so keep evaluating it. 2. 6 Think about your partner’s comments on your plan and try to improve it. Write the first draft of your essay. At this stage, you should try to write between 400 and 600 words. Study tip  It is always helpful to get another opinion. This will not only help you improve your essay writing, but also get you used to the idea of modifying and redrafting that is so important in university study. 2. 7 English for academic study 88 Academic Achievement 2. 8 When you have finished your first draft, find another student who has also finished and exchange drafts. a) Read your partner’s draft carefully. Respond to the questions on the Peer Evaluation Sheet for Unit 1 on page 141 of this book. b) When commenting on your partner’s draft, remember that constructive criticism is more helpful when giving advice. The phrases below for making polite suggestions should help you to express your comments in a constructive manner. 1 Giving Peer Feedback PHRASES FOR MAKING POLITE SUGGESTIONS †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ It might be a good idea if you †¦ It might be a good idea to †¦ I agree with you, but you could †¦ Right, but you could †¦ This is/That’s good, but you could †¦ My advice would be to †¦ Do you think a better approach might be to †¦? Why don’t you †¦? How about this? Perhaps you could †¦ Maybe it would be better to †¦ I think it would be better if you †¦ Can I/May I make another suggestion? I would recommend that you †¦ Have you thought about (verb + ing) †¦? What about †¦? Remember: Peer feedback should be supportive and helpful—provide constructive criticism. Task 3: Microskills: Introductions 3. 1 Quickly write down what you think are the important points to include in an introduction to an academic essay. Reading & Writing 89 3. 2 Discuss your ideas and explain why you have chosen these points: a) with a partner; b) with the rest of the class. Study tip EAS Writing contains suggestions for individual work as well as pair, group, and class discussion. Make full use of this varied interaction to develop your ideas. 3. 3 Answer the following questions: a) What function or purpose does the introduction of an essay have? b) What should an introduction contain? 90 English for academic study Academic Achievement 3. 4 Look at the following sentences from an introduction to an essay on The problems of population growth. a) Decide which would be the most logical order of these sentences: 1 This growth has created many problems, especially in the capital cities. This essay will discuss the situation that has led to the development of these problems and describe some of them. The population of the world has been growing rapidly over the last thirty years. It will then suggest some possible solutions to the problems and evaluate their viability. The problems include housing, pollution, unemployment, and food and water shortages. b) Compare what you think with another student and also say why you decided on the order you chose. c) Together with your partner, try to identify an obvious pattern to the introduction and decide what the function of each sentence is. 3. 5 Read carefully the following five introductions for an essay entitled Academic success in one’s own culture and try to evaluate their strengths and weaknesses. % % â€Å"(! ‘%, & ! % ! ‘ (! ) %& ‘, &( % ! ‘ #%† % & â€Å"% ( ‘ â€Å"! ! % ! ‘ â€Å"(!’% & ) %, &# ( ‘ â€Å"! &,&’ ‘ ‘ & #’ ‘† â€Å"(! ‘%, ( ‘ â€Å"! &,&’ & â€Å"% ! %† #% %, & â€Å"† ‘† & && , & â€Å"(‘ ‘ &( && ! % ! && & â€Å"! † ‘ â€Å"&’ #†%’ ! ‘ † & † ! , &'( ! ‘& ! % % &† % ) ! ‘ ‘†%& ‘† † ‘ ! ‘ & † ! ! ,†( ! !’ % † ‘ ! & ‘ ‘ ,†( &( ! ,†(% ) %, , % â€Å"&’ ! , % &'( ! ‘& ‘%, ‘† ! ‘ % † â€Å"* ) % &† &'( ! ‘& #% % ‘† &'( , ! & † & & && , * & % &† ‘†%& ‘ ‘ % â€Å"& , % ‘ ‘† &( && ! ! ! ) %, † , * & & ‘† ) &( && ! &† ‘, / ( &&0 ! ! & &† ‘, & ! â€Å"‘ â€Å"! , â€Å"% â€Å"! 1& â€Å"*! â€Å"! â€Å"% (‘ &† ‘ * † ,1& (%’ % â€Å"% â€Å"% â€Å"&’ ! & &'( ! ‘& ! ‘ %&’ &’ â€Å"(% &( && ‘ ‘ ‘ % $( % ‘† ! â€Å"† & â€Å"% ! !’ % % & â€Å"† ‘† &'( , ! ‘ & â€Å"! &’ ‘ ‘ ‘ ‘! â€Å"% &'( ! ‘ ‘† ! â€Å"† † â€Å"% â€Å"! ‘% (‘ ‘† &# & ‘ â€Å"( / &( && 0 !’ â€Å"! â€Å"(% ( ‘ â€Å"! &,&’ ! â€Å"! #’ † ‘% ‘ â€Å"! ( ‘(% * ,& ‘& â€Å"(% &'( ! ‘&1 &( && % â€Å"% ‘ & && , * & % &( && ! * ! ! ! ‘ ‘ % ‘ ‘†%& Reading & Writing 91 ( ‘ â€Å"! & â€Å"! † ‘ & ‘†%& â€Å"! ‘% (‘ ! ‘† ‘ ) â€Å"# ! ‘ † &† ‘, ( ‘ â€Å"% ‘ % ‘ # â€Å"# â€Å"( % – ‘ % #†Ã¢â‚¬Ëœ ! ‘ ) â€Å"† , +’ ! ! ( ‘ â€Å"! ! % ‘ # â€Å"# , #%†) ‘ % ( ‘(% † ‘( & & && , * & % ‘ ( ‘ â€Å"! &,&’ ! % ‘ & &( && ! â€Å"(% â€Å"(! ‘%, ! , ‘†%& ‘† & % ‘ ! â€Å"(! & ‘ & ‘†# ! ‘ â€Å"! ‘& #†%’ ! # ! & â€Å"! ‘ † â€Å"* ! !’ ! ‘ ! ‘ † & ‘ #† , † ‘ â€Å") %! !’ ‘ &,&’ † ( ‘ â€Å"! &(##à ¢â‚¬ %’ &,&’ ! ‘ & ‘ %&’ *†( ‘† ! ‘ !! â€Å"% ! &* % ! ‘ & $( &’ â€Å"! !’ & $( &’ â€Å"!. * ‘ ! † ‘ &% % & &( && ! # !. & & â€Å"&’ # ! & * ! &* % ‘ ‘ ‘ & ‘† % ( ‘ %† % (! ) %& ‘, % & â€Å"† % &†! ‘† & , &† ! # ! & &† ‘, ‘ % &’ † ‘ ! % % & &'( ! ‘&1 (‘(% ‘ ,† ‘ ! % ! ‘ % & â€Å"† % % #%† , ‘* ! &( && ! ‘ % (‘(% ‘ % % ( ‘! â€Å"&’ † ‘ * ‘† ! ‘ % #% &’ â€Å"(& † # ! , ! % , ‘ & & (& ( † (# ‘ â€Å"! ! ‘& â€Å"! ‘ â€Å"! & % â€Å"† % â€Å"% ! , # â€Å"# ‘ ( ‘ ‘† #% # % â€Å"% # && ! & â€Å"† + & † % ! ) ‘† &'( , % â€Å"% ‘ , † ! ‘ & â€Å"† ! %’ & % ( &’ ! & ‘ & & ‘ ‘ ‘ , â€Å"% ‘ ‘ ! ! † &'( , ! &( ‘& & && , ! ‘ â€Å"! & â€Å"‘ ) ‘ â€Å"! ‘† &'( , ! ‘% & ‘† % (# ‘ !! † &( && ! â€Å"(% ( ‘(% Edited extracts from authentic student mater ial 3. 6 Imagine you are writing an essay on the following three topics. Write a suitable introduction for each one of them. (Note that you are not going to  write the whole essay. ) a) The education system in one’s own country. b) Traveling broadens the mind. Discuss. c) The rapid development of electronic communications may mean that people will have fewer social skills. Discuss. 3. 7 When you write the second draft of your essay What are the aims of academic study and how can they be achieved? make appropriate changes to the introduction, and other parts, according to your peer feedback session. Study tip Spend time on your introduction as it plays a crucial role in the essay. It should provide the reader with a clear indication of the main areas you are going to discuss. 92 English for academic study Academic Achievement 1 Unit summary In this unit you have reflected on your attitudes and approach to academic writing skills. You have thought about the different stages of the writing process and practiced planning, writing a first draft, and giving peer feedback. You have also looked at how to write effective introductions to your essays. 1 Match the words and phrases in the box to their definitions below. They are all procedures and techniques that form part of the writing process. drafting brainstorming peer feedback organizing ideas adopting a critical stance a) Generating and noting down initial ideas about a topic without ordering them b) Putting ideas together in a logical sequence c) Deciding on and expressing your viewpoint after examining and judging possible opinions d) The process of writing and putting your essay together. Most essays will have two or more drafts and will be revised and edited after each draft. e) Comments on your essay from other students 2 Complete the sentences below on writing an academic text using some of the words from Ex 1. a) When you are given a writing task, it is important to start by b) When you write the first draft you should. c) Before you hand in your final draft 3 After working on this unit, write down ways in your notebook of how you improved your knowledge of academic writing. Reading & Writing For web resources relevant to this unit, see: www. englishforacademicstudy. com/us/student/writing/links 93 Academic Achievement Text 1-1: The influence of class size on academic achievement 1 THE INFLUENCE OF CLASS SIZE ON ACADEMIC ACHIEVEMENT Education is a pillar of modern society and the subject of endless, often passionate arguments about how it can best be improved. In the U. S. , there is heated 5 debate following revelations that the country’s secondary school  students perform poorly relative to many Asian and European students. The news coincided with increasing concern over the nation’s urban and 10 lower-income suburban schools, too many of which are languishing at achievement levels far below those of middle-class and upper middle-class suburban schools. Of all the ideas for improving education, 15 few are as simple or attractive as reducing the number of pupils per teacher. With its uncomplicated appeal and lack of a big, powerful group of opponents, class-size reduction has lately developed from a sub20 ject of primarily academic interest to a key political issue. In the United States, more than 20 states and the federal government have adopted policies aimed at decreasing class sizes, and billions of dollars have been 25 spent or committed in the past few years. The demand for smaller classes is also growing in Canada, Australia, the United Kingdom, and even Japan, whose record of secondary school performance is the envy of 30 most other developed countries. The most obvious drawback to class-size reduction is the huge cost. It requires more teachers, more classrooms, and more classroom equipment and resources. These 35 expenses can dwarf the price of alternative schemes, such as testing teachers or increasing their pay as a means of attracting better candidates. The state of California, for example, has been spending more than 40 $1. 5 billion annually over the past several years to reduce class size to 20 or fewer for children in the four- to seven-year-old bracket. On the other hand, if smaller classes really do work, the economic benefits could be huge. 157 Reading & Writing Text 1-1: The influence of class size on academic achievement cont. 158 English for academic study smaller classes. Finally, some analysts believe that the very youngest age group in smaller classes are more likely to develop good study habits, higher self-esteem and possibly other beneficial cognitive traits— which may very well persist for years, even 95 after the students have gone back to more normal-sized classes. One way investigators have attempted to analyze the effects of class size is by reviewing existing data, such as records kept by the 100 U. S. Department of Education. These show that between 1969 and 1997, the average number of pupils per teacher in American public and private elementary schools fell from 25. 1 to 18. 3, a decline of greater than 105 27%. In secondary schools, the number also fell, from 19. 7 to 14. 0. Of concern, however, is the fact that despite these steep drops in pupil-teacher ratios, the improvement in academic performance was negligible. Data 110 from the National Assessment of Educational Progress—a series of tests that is the only United States-wide indicator of student knowledge in reading, mathematics, science WHAT ARE THE BENEFITS and other subjects—show no significant OF SMALLER CLASS SIZES? 115 gains. In some specific age and subject categories, such as 17-year-olds and science, Educators have a multitude of explanations performance actually decreased slightly. for why smaller class sizes might be expect70 ed to improve academic performance, although frequently the ideas are anecdotal. WHAT THE RECORD SHOWS Fewer students in the classroom seem to translate into less noise and disruptive However, these findings do not necessarily 75 behavior from students, which not only gives the teacher more time for class work but 120 mean that class size makes no difference. For a variety of reasons, most researchers, also more freedom to engage students creincluding the writers, pay little attention to atively—by, for example, dividing them into these figures (Figure 1). For instance, groups for specific projects. In addition, schools strive for more than just high test 80 smaller classes make it more likely that the teacher can give greater individual attention 125 scores; they also usually try to keep their dropout rate low. In fact, the dropout rate to struggling students. Smaller classes also for students aged 16–24 fell from 15 to 11 allow teachers to encourage more discuspercent over the period. Because dropouts sion, assign more writing, and closely examgenerally come from the low end of the 85 ine their students’ written work. In other words, much of the benefit of reduced class 130 achievement distribution, a reduction in dropout rate could be expected to pull down size may depend on whether the teachers average test scores in the upper grades. adapt their methods to take advantage of They would accrue not just from the benefits of a better-educated workforce but also from other sources, such as the avoided medical costs and sick days of a healthier, more informed populace. The surge of interest in smaller classes 50 has spurred fresh analyzes of the largest, most conclusive study to date, which took place in Tennessee in the late 1980s. At the same time, new data are flowing from 55 various initiatives, including the California program and a smaller one in Wisconsin. These results and analyzes are finally offering some tentative responses to the questions that researchers must answer before 60 legislators can come up with policies that make educational and economic sense: Do small classes in fact improve school achievement? If they do, at what age level do they accomplish the greatest good? What kind of 65 students gain the greatest benefit, and most importantly, how great is the benefit? 45 90 Academic Achievement Text 1-1: The influence of class size on academic achievement cont. 1 FIGURE 1: MILESTONE STUDIES IN CLASS SIZE PROJECT STATE STUDENTS PARTICIPATING APPROX. COST SMALL CLASS SIZE KEY FINDINGS STAR 1985–89 Tennessee 10,000 $12m 13–17 Significant performance benefit of 0. 2 standard deviation; larger gains for minority pupils Small performance gain of about 0. 05 to 0. 1 standard deviation; no greater gains for minorities Significant performance advantage of 0. 2 standard deviation; larger gain.